Honey | Educational Sleep Podcast

Honey has been part of human history for longer than recorded agriculture. This episode explores how bees transform nectar into honey, how hives function, the origins of beekeeping, and why humans became fascinated with harvesting sweetness from insects that absolutely did not volunteer for the arrangement. Along the way, you’ll hear about honey varieties, seasonal hive cycles, and the surprisingly competitive world of modern beekeeping.

It’s steady and consistent, with no whispering and no sudden changes, just enough to give your mind something to follow as you wind down. Happy sleeping!

Transcript

Welcome to the I Can't Sleep Podcast, Where I help you drift off one fact at a time. I'm your host, Benjamin Boster. And today's episode is about honey. Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several species of bees. The best known of which are honeybees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants. Or the secretions of other insects, Like the honeydew of aphids. This refinement takes place both within individual bees, Through regurgitation and enzymatic activity, And during storage in the hive, Through water evaporation that concentrates the honey's sugars until it is thick and viscous. Honey bees stockpile honey in the hive. Within the hive is a structure made from wax called honeycomb. The honeycomb is made up of hundreds or thousands of hexagonal cells, Into which the bees regurgitate honey for storage. Other honey producing species of bees store the substance in different structures. Such as the pods made of wax and resin used by the stingless bee. Honey from human consumption is collected from wild bee colonies or from the hives of domesticated bees. The honey produced by honeybees is the most familiar to humans, Thanks to its worldwide commercial production and availability. The husbandry of bees is known as beekeeping or apiculture. With the cultivation of stingless bees usually referred to as melaponiculture. Honey is sweet because of its high concentrations of the monosaccharides fructose and glucose. It has about the same relative sweetness as sucrose, Table sugar. One standard tablespoon, 14 milliliters of honey, Provides around 180 kilojoules of food energy. It has attractive chemical properties for baking and a distinctive flavor when used as a sweetener. Due to honey's high sugar concentration and acidic pH level, Many microorganisms cannot grow in it, And when properly stored, Honey therefore does not spoil. Samples of honey discovered in archaeological contexts have proven edible, Even after millennia. Honey use and production has a long and varied history, With its beginnings in prehistoric times. Several cave paintings in Cuevas de la Araña in Spain depict humans foraging for honey at least 8, 000 years ago. While Apis mellifera is an old-world insect, Large-scale melaponiculture of New World stingless bees has been practiced by Mayans since pre-Columbian times. Honey is produced by bees who have collected nectar or honeydew. Bees value honey for its sugars, Which they consume to support general metabolic activity, Especially that of their flight muscles during foraging and as a food for their larvae. To this end, Bees stockpile honey to provide for themselves during ordinary foraging, As well as during lean periods, As in overwintering. During foraging, Bees use part of the nectar they collect to power their flight muscles. The majority of nectar collected is not used to directly nourish the insects, But is instead destined for regurgitation, Enzymatic digestion, And finally long-term storage as honey. During cold weather or when other food sources are scarce. Adult and larval bees consume stored honey, Which is many times more energy dense as the nectar from which it is made. After leaving the hive, A foraging bee collects sugar-rich nectar, Or honeydew. Nectar from the flower generally has a water content of 70-80% and is much less viscous than finished honey, Which usually has a water content around 18%. The water content of honeydew from aphids and other true bugs is generally very close to the sap on which those insects feed and is usually somewhat more dilute than nectar. One source describes the water content of honeydew as around 89%. Whether it is feeding on nectar or honeydew, The bee sucks these runny fluids through its proboscis, Which delivers the liquid to the bee's honey stomach or honey crop. This cavity lies just above its food stomach, The latter of which digests pollen and sugars consumed by an individual honeybee for its own nourishment. In apis mellifera, The honey stomach holds about 40 mg of liquid. This is about half the weight of an unladen bee. Collecting this quantity in nectar can require visits to more than 1, 000 flowers. When nectar is plentiful, It can take a bee more than an hour of ceaseless work to collect enough nectar to fill its honey crop. Salivary enzymes and proteins from the bee's hypopharyngeal gland are secreted into the nectar once it is in the bee's honey stomach. These substances begin cleaving complex sugars like sucrose and starches into simpler sugars such as glucose and fructose. This process slightly raises the water content and the acidity of the partially digested nectar. Once filled, The forager bees return to the hive. There they regurgitate and transfer nectar to hive bees. Once it is in their own honey stomachs, The hive bees regurgitate the nectar, Repeatedly forming bubbles between their mandibles, Speeding its digestion and concentration. These bubbles create a large surface area per volume. And by this means the bees evaporate a portion of the nectar's water into the warm air of the hive. Hive bees form honey processing groups. These groups work in relay, With one bee subjecting the processed nectar to bubbling, And then passing the refined liquid onto others. It can take as long as 20 minutes of continuous regurgitation, Digestion and evaporation until the product reaches storage quality. The new honey is then placed in honeycomb cells, Which are left uncapped. This honey still has a very high water content, Up to 70%, Depending on the concentration of nectar gathered. At this stage of its refinement, The water content of the honey is high enough that ubiquitous yeast spores can reproduce in it. A process which, If left unchecked, Would rapidly consume the new honey sugars. To combat this, Bees use an ability rare among insects, The endogenous generation of heat. Bees are among the few insects that can create large amounts of body heat. They use this ability to produce a constant ambient temperature in their hives. Hive temperatures are usually around 35 degrees Celsius or 95 degrees Fahrenheit in the honey storage areas. This temperature is regulated either by generating heat with their bodies or removing it through water evaporation. The evaporation removes water from the stored honey, Drawing heat from the colony. The bees use their wings to govern hive cooling. Coordinated wing beating moves air across the wet honey, Drawing out water and heat. Ventilation of the hive eventually expels both excess water and heat into the outside world. The process of evaporating continues until the honey reaches its final water content of between 15. 5% and 18%. This concentrates the sugars far beyond the saturation point of water. Which is to say, There is far more sugar dissolved in what little water remains in honey than ever could be dissolved in an equivalent volume of water. Honey, Even at hive temperatures, Is therefore a supercooled solution of various sugars in water. These concentrations of sugar can only be achieved near room temperature by evaporation of a less concentrated solution. In this case, Nectar. For osmotic reasons, Such high concentrations of sugar are extremely unfavorable to microbiological reproduction, And all fermentation is consequently halted. The bees then cap the cells of finished honey with wax. This seals them from contamination and prevents further evaporation. So long as its water concentration does not rise much above 18%. Honey has an indefinite shelf life, Both within the hive and after its removal by a beekeeper. Honey bees are not the only eusocial insects to produce honey. All non-parasitic bumblebees and stingless bees produce honey. Some wasp species found in South and Central America are known to feed on nectar and produce honey. Other wasps also consume honey. In the middle of their life cycles, They alternate between feeding on protein-rich pollen and feeding on honey, Which is a far denser source of food energy. Humans have semi-domesticated several species of honeybee by taking advantage of their swarming stage. Swarming is the means by which new colonies are established when there is no longer space for expansion in the colony's present hive. The old queen lays eggs that will develop into new queens and then leads as many as half the colony to a new site for a new hive. Bees generally swarm before a suitable location for another hive has been discovered by scouts sent out for this purpose. Until such a location is found, The swarm will simply conglomerate near the former hive, Often from tree branches. These swarms are unusually docile and amenable to transport by humans. When provided with a suitable nesting site, Such as a commercial Langstroth hive, The swarm will readily form a new colony in artificial surroundings. These semi-domesticated colonies are then looked after by humans, Practicing apiculture or meleponiculture. Captured bees are encouraged to forage, Often in agricultural settings such as orchards, Where pollinators are highly valued. The honey, Pollen, Wax and resins the bees produce are all harvested by humans for a variety of uses. The term semi-domesticated is preferred because all bee colonies, Even those in very large agricultural apiculture operations, Readily leave the protection of humans and swarms that can establish successful wild colonies. Much of the effort in commercial beekeeping is dedicated to persuading a hive that is ready to swarm to produce more honeycomb in its present location. This is usually done by adding more space to the colony with honey supers. Empty boxes placed on top of an existing colony. The bees can then usually be enticed to develop this empty space instead of dividing their colony through swarming. Honey is collected from wild bee colonies or from domesticated beehives. On average, A hive will produce about 29 kilograms of honey per year. Wild bee nests are sometimes located by following a honey guide bird. To safely collect honey from a hive, Beekeepers typically pacify the bees using a bee smoker. The smoke triggers a feeding instinct, An attempt to save the resources of the hive from a possible fire, Making them less aggressive, And obscures the pheromones the bees use to communicate. The honeycomb is removed from the hive and the honey may be extracted from it either by crushing or by using a honey extractor. The honey is then usually filtered to remove beeswax and other debris. Before the invention of removable frames, Bee colonies were often sacrificed to conduct the harvest. The harvester would take all of the available honey and replace the entire colony the next spring. Since the invention of removable frames, The principles of husbandry led most beekeepers to ensure that their bees have enough stores to survive the winter. Either by leaving some honey in the beehive, Or by providing the colony with a honey substitute, Such as sugar water or crystalline sugar, Often in the form of a candy board. The amount of food necessary to survive the winter depends on the variety of bees and the length and severity of local winters. Many animal species are attracted to wild or domestic sources of honey. Because of its composition and chemical properties, Honey is suitable for long-term storage. And is easily assimilated even after long preservation. Honey and objects immersed in honey have been preserved for centuries. However, No edible honey has been found in Egyptian tombs. All such cases have been proven to be other substances or only chemical traces. The key to preservation is limiting access to humidity. In its cured state, Honey has a sufficiently high sugar content to inhibit fermentation. If exposed to moist air, Its hydrophilic properties pull moisture into the honey, Eventually diluting it to the point that fermentation can begin. The long shelf life of honey is attributed to an enzyme found in the stomach of bees. The bees mix glucose oxidase with expelled nectar they previously consumed, Creating two byproducts, Gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, Which are partially responsible for honey acidity and suppression of bacterial growth. Honey is sometimes adulterated by the addition of other sugars, Syrups or compounds. This may be done to alter flavor or viscosity, Reduce production costs, Or increase fructose content, Which can inhibit crystallization. Adulteration of honey has been documented since ancient times. Historical sources describe honey being blended with plant syrups, Such as maple, Birch, Or sorghum syrup, And sold as pure honey. In some cases, Crystallized honey was mixed with flour or other fillers. This practice could conceal adulteration until the honey was heated and liquefied. In more recent times, Clear, Nearly flavorless corn syrup has become the most common adulterant. Honey adulterated with corn syrup can be difficult to distinguish from unadulterated honey. According to the Codex Alimentarius of the United Nations, Products labeled as honey or pure honey must not be adulterated. Honey labeling requirements, However, Vary between countries. In the United States, The National Honey Board identifies honey authenticity as a major challenge for the honey industry. Over the past half century, A range of analytical methods has been developed to detect food fraud. The National Honey Board notes that no single universal method is currently capable of detecting all forms of honey adulteration with adequate sensitivity. One technique used to detect adulteration is isotope ratio mass spectrometry. This method can identify the addition of cane sugar or corn syrup by analyzing carbon isotopic signatures. Corn and sugar cane are C4 plants, Whereas the plants used by bees to produce honey, As well as sugar beet, Are predominantly C3 plants. Sugars derived from C4 plants alter the isotopic ratio of sugars in honey, But do not affect the isotopic ratio of proteins. In unadulterated honey, The carbon isotopic ratios of sugars and proteins are expected to match. Using this method, Adulteration levels as low as 7% can be detected. In 2023, World production of honey was 1. 9 million tons, Led by China with 24% of the total, And Turkey, Ethiopia, And Iran as secondary producers. Over its history as a food, The main uses of honey are in cooking, Baking, Desserts, As a spread on bread, As an addition to various beverages, Such as tea, And as a sweetener in some commercial beverages. Due to its energy density, Honey is an important food for virtually all hunter-gatherer cultures in warm climates, With the Hadza people ranking honey as their favorite food. Honey hunters in Africa have a mutualistic relationship with certain species of honeyguide birds. The physical properties of honey vary depending on water content, The type of flora used to produce it, Temperature, And the proportion of the specific sugars it contains. Fresh honey is a super-saturated liquid containing more sugars than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures. At room temperature, Honey is a supercooled liquid in which the glucose precipitates into solid granules. This forms a semi-solid solution of precipitated glucose crystals and a solution of fructose and other ingredients. The density of honey typically ranges between 1. 38 and 1. 45 kilograms per liter at 20 degrees Celsius. The melting point of crystallized honey is between 40 and 50 degrees Celsius, Depending on its composition. Below this temperature, Honey can be either in a metastable state, Meaning that it will not crystallize until a seed crystal is added, Or, More often, It is in a labile state, Being saturated with enough sugars to crystallize spontaneously. The rate of crystallization is affected by many factors, But the primary factor is the ratio of the main sugars, Fructose to glucose. Honeys that are supersaturated with a very high percentage of glucose, Such as brassica honey, Crystallize almost immediately after harvesting, While honeys with a low percentage of glucose, Such as chestnut or tubulo honey, Do not crystallize. Some types of honey may produce few but very large crystals, While others produce many small crystals. Crystallization is also affected by water content, Because a high percentage of water inhibits crystallization, As does a high dextrin content. Temperature also affects the rate of crystallization, With the fastest growth occurring between 13 and 17 degrees Celsius. Crystal nuclei, Seeds, Tend to form more readily if the honey is disturbed by stirring, Shaking, Or agitating, Rather than if left at rest. However, The nucleation of microscopic seed crystals is greatest between 5 and 8 degrees Celsius. Therefore, Larger but fewer crystals tend to form at higher temperatures, While smaller but more numerous crystals usually form at lower temperatures. Below 5 degrees Celsius, The honey will not crystallize. Thus, The original texture and flavor can be preserved indefinitely. Honey is a supercooled liquid when stored below its melting point, As is normal. At very low temperatures, Honey does not freeze solid, Rather its viscosity increases. Like most viscous liquids, The honey becomes thick and sluggish with a decreasing temperature. At negative 20 degrees Celsius, Honey may appear or even feel solid, But it continues to flow at very low rates. Honey has a glass transition between negative 42 and negative 51 degrees Celsius. Below this temperature, Honey enters a glassy state and becomes an amorphous solid, Non-crystalline. The viscosity of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the water percentage, The more easily honey flows. Above its melting point, However, Water has little effect on viscosity. Aside from water content, The composition of most types of honey also has little effect on viscosity. At 25 degrees Celsius, Honey with 14% water content generally has a viscosity around 400 poise. While a honey containing 20% water has a viscosity around 20 poise. Viscosity increases very slowly with moderate cooling. A honey containing 16% water at 70 degrees Celsius has a viscosity around 2 poise, While at 30 degrees Celsius, The viscosity is around 70 poise. With further cooling, The increase in viscosity is more rapid, Reaching 600 poise at around 14 degrees Celsius. However, While honey is viscous, It has low surface tension of 50-60 MJ per square meter, Making its sweatability similar to water, Glycerin, Or most other liquids. The high viscosity and wettability of honey causes stickiness, Which is a time-dependent process in supercooled liquids between the glass transition temperature and the crystalline melting temperature. Most types of honey are Newtonian liquids, But a few types have non-Newtonian viscous properties. Honeys from Heather or Manuka display hypsotropic properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, But liquefy when stirred. Because honey contains electrolytes in the form of acids and minerals, It exhibits varying degrees of electrical conductivity. Measurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms of ash content. The effect honey has on light is useful for determining the type and quality. Variations in its water content alter its refractive index. Water content can easily be measured with a refractometer. Typically, The refractive index for honey ranges from 1. 504 at 13% water content to 1. 474 at 25%. Honey also has an effect on polarized light, In that it rotates the polarization plane. The fructose gives a negative rotation, While the glucose gives a positive one. The overall rotation can be used to measure the ratio of the mixture. Honey is generally pale yellow and dark brown in color. But other colors can occur depending on the sugar source. Bee colonies that forage on kudzu flowers, For example, Produce honey that varies in color from red to purple.