Peace

In this episode of the I Can’t Sleep Podcast, fall asleep learning about peace in a time when there seems to be very little. Perhaps you can forget about all that is going on in the world and focus your mind on peace. Happy sleeping!

Transcript

Welcome to the I Can't Sleep podcast,

Where I read random articles from across the web to bore you to sleep with my soothing voice.

I'm your host,

Benjamin Bostor.

Today's episode is from a Wikipedia article titled,

Peace.

Peace is a concept of societal friendship and harmony in the absence of hostility and violence.

In a social sense,

Peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict such as war and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups.

Throughout history,

Leaders have used peacemaking and diplomacy to establish a certain type of behavioral restraint that has resulted in the establishment of regional peace or economic growth through various forms of agreements or peace treaties.

Such behavioral restraint has often resulted in the reduction of conflicts,

Greater economic interactivity,

And consequently substantial prosperity.

Psychological peace,

Such as a peaceful thinking and emotions,

Is perhaps less well-defined yet often a necessary precursor to establishing behavioral peace.

Peaceful behavior sometimes results from a peaceful inner disposition.

Some have expressed the belief that peace can be initiated with a certain quality of inner tranquility that does not depend upon the uncertainties of daily life or its existence.

The acquisition of such a peaceful internal disposition for oneself and others can contribute to resolving of otherwise seemingly irreconcilable competing interests.

Etymology The Anglo-French term pays itself comes from the Latin paux,

Meaning peace,

Compact,

Agreement,

Treaty of peace,

Tranquility,

Absence of hostility,

Harmony.

The English word came into use in various personal greetings from circa 1300 as a translation of the Hebrew word shalom,

Which according to Jewish theology comes from a Hebrew verb meaning to be complete,

Whole.

Although peace is the usual translation,

However,

It is an incomplete one because shalom,

Which is also cognate with the Arabic salam,

Has multiple other meanings in addition to peace,

Including justice,

Good health,

Safety,

Well-being,

Prosperity,

Equity,

Security,

Good fortune,

And friendliness,

As well as simply the greetings hello and goodbye.

At a personal level,

Peaceful behaviors are kind,

Considerate,

Respectful,

Just,

And tolerant of others' beliefs and behaviors,

Tending to manifest goodwill.

The term peace originates most recently from the Anglo-French pays and Old French paix,

Meaning peace,

Reconciliation,

Silence,

Agreement,

Eleventh century.

This latter understanding of peace can also pertain to an individual's introspective sense or concept of her or himself as in being at peace in one's own mind,

As found in European references from circa 1200.

The early English term is also used in the sense of quiet,

Reflecting calm,

Serene,

And meditative approaches to family or group relationships that avoid quarreling and seeking tranquility,

An absence of disturbance or agitation.

In many languages,

The word for peace is also used as a greeting or a farewell,

For example,

The Hawaiian word aloha,

As well as the Arabic word salaam.

In English,

The word peace is occasionally used as a farewell,

Especially for the dead,

As in the phrase rest in peace.

Wolfgang Dietrich and his research project,

Which led to the book The Paul Graf International Handbook of Peace Studies,

Maps the different meanings of peace in different languages and from different regions across the world.

Here in his Interpretations of Peace in History and Culture,

He groups the different meanings of peace into five peace families,

Energetic harmony,

Moral justice,

Modern security,

Postmodern truth,

And trans-rational,

A synthesis of the positive sides of the four previous families and the society.

History In ancient times and more recently,

Peaceful alliances between different nations were codified through royal marriages.

Two examples,

Hermodike I circa 800 BC and Hermodike II circa 600 BC,

Were Greek princesses from the house of Agamemnon who married kings from what is now central Turkey.

The union of Phrygia-Lydia with Aeolian Greeks resulted in regional peace,

Which facilitated the transfer of groundbreaking technological skills into ancient Greece,

Respectively the phonetic written script and the minting of coinage to use a token currency where the value is guaranteed by the state.

Both inventions were rapidly adopted by surrounding nations through further trade and cooperation,

And have been of fundamental benefit to the progress of civilization.

Since classical times it has been noted that peace has sometimes been achieved by the victor over the vanquished by the imposition of ruthless measures.

In his book,

Agricola,

The Roman historian Tacitus includes eloquent and vicious polemics against the rapacity and greed of Rome.

One that Tacitus says is by the Caledonian chieftain,

Calgacus,

Ends,

Au fere trucidare e rapere falsis nominibus imperium,

Adque ubis solitudinem faciunt pacem apedant.

To ravage,

To slaughter,

To usurp under false titles,

They call empire,

And where they make a desert,

They call it peace.

Oxford Revised Translation Discussion of peace is therefore at the same time a discussion on the form of such peace.

Is it simple absence of mass organized killing,

War,

Or does peace require a particular morality and justice,

Just peace?

A peace must be seen at least in two forms,

A simple silence of arms,

Absence of war,

Absence of war accompanied by particular requirements for the mutual settlement of relations,

Which are characterized by terms such as justice,

Mutual respect,

Respect for law,

And goodwill.

More recently advocates for radical reform and justice systems have called for a public policy adoption of non-punitive,

Non-violent restorative justice methods,

And many of those studying the success of these methods,

Including a United Nations working group on restorative justice,

Have attempted to redefine justice in terms related to peace.

From the late 2000s on,

A theory of active peace has been proposed,

Which conceptually integrates justice into a larger peace theory.

Organizations and Prizes United Nations The United Nations,

UN,

Is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in international law,

International security,

Economic development,

Social progress,

Human rights,

And achieving world peace.

The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations,

To stop wars between countries,

And to provide a platform for dialogue.

The UN,

After approval by the Security Council,

Sends peacekeepers to regions where armed conflict has recently ceased or paused,

To enforce the terms of peace agreements,

And to discourage combatants from resuming hostilities.

Since the UN does not mandate its own military,

Peacekeeping forces are voluntarily provided by member states of the UN.

The forces also called the Blue Helmets,

Who enforce UN accords,

Are awarded United Nations medals,

Which are considered international decorations instead of military decorations.

The peacekeeping force as a whole received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.

Domestic Peace The obligation of the state to provide for domestic peace within its borders is usually charged to the police and other general domestic policing activities.

The police are a constituted body of persons empowered by a state to enforce the law,

To protect the lives,

Liberty,

And possessions of citizens,

And to prevent crime and civil disorder.

Their powers include the power of arrest and the legitimized use of force.

The term is most commonly associated with the police forces of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility.

The term is most commonly associated with the police force of a sovereign state that are authorized to exercise the police power of that state within a defined legal or territorial area of responsibility.

Police forces are often defined as being separate from the military and other organizations involved in the defense of the state against foreign aggressors.

However,

Gendarmerie are military units charged with civil policing.

Police forces are usually public sector services funded through taxes.

National Security It is the obligation of national security to provide for peace and security in a nation against foreign threats and foreign aggression.

Several causes of national insecurity include actions by other states,

E.

G.

Military or cyber attack,

Violent non-state actors,

E.

G.

Terrorist attacks,

Organized criminal groups such as narcotic cartels,

And also the effects of natural disasters,

E.

G.

Flooding earthquakes.

Systematic drivers of insecurity which may be transnational include climate change,

Economic inequality and marginalization,

Political exclusion,

And militarization.

In view of the wide range of risks,

The preservation of peace and the security of a nation state have several dimensions including economic security,

Energy security,

Physical security,

Environmental security,

Food security,

Border security,

And cyber security.

These dimensions correlate closely with elements of national power.

League of Nations The principal forerunner of the United Nations was the League of Nations.

It was created at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and emerged from the advocacy of Woodrow Wilson and other idealists during World War I.

The covenant of the League of Nations was included in the Treaty of Versailles in 1919,

And the League was based in Geneva until its dissolution as a result of World War II and replacement by the United Nations.

The high hopes widely held for the League in the 1920s,

For example,

Amongst members of the League of Nations Union,

Gave way to widespread dissolution in the 1930s as the League struggled to respond to challenges from Nazi Germany,

Fascist Italy,

And Japan.

One of the most important scholars of the League of Nations was Sir Alfred Zimmern.

Like many of the other British enthusiasts for the League,

Such as Gilbert Murray and Florence Stowell,

The so-called Greece in Peace set,

He came to this from the study of the classics.

The creation of the League of Nations and the hope for informed public opinion on international issues,

Expressed,

For example,

By the Union for Democratic Control during World War I,

Also saw the creation after World War I of bodies dedicated to understanding international affairs,

Such as the Council on Foreign Relations in New York and the Royal Institute of International Affairs at Chatham House in London.

At the same time,

The academic study of international relations started to professionalize,

With the creation of the first professorship of international politics named for Woodrow Wilson at Aberystwyth,

Wales in 1919.

Olympic Games The late 19th century idealist advocacy of peace which led to the creation of the Nobel Peace Prize,

The Rhodes Scholarships,

The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,

And ultimately the League of Nations,

Also saw the re-emergence of the ancient Olympic ideal.

Led by Pierre de Coubertin,

This culminated in the holdings in 1896 of the first of the modern Olympic Games.

Nobel Peace Prize The highest honor awarded to a peacemaker is the Nobel Prize in Peace,

Awarded since 1901 by the Norwegian Nobel Committee.

It is awarded annually to internationally notable persons following the prize's creation in the will of Alfred Nobel.

According to Nobel's will,

The Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations,

For the abolition or reduction of standing armies,

And for the holding and promotion of peace congresses.

Rhodes Scholarships and Other Fellowships In creating the Rhodes Scholarships for outstanding students from the United States,

Germany,

And much of the British Empire,

Cecil Rhodes wrote in 1901 that the object is that an understanding between the three great powers will render war impossible,

And the educational relations make the strongest tie.

This peace purpose of the Rhodes Scholarships was very prominent in the first half of the twentieth century,

And became prominent again in recent years under warden of the Rhodes House Donald Markwell,

A historian of thought about the cause of war and peace.

This vision greatly influenced Senator John William Fulbright and the goal of the Fulbright Fellowships to promote international understanding and peace,

And has guided many other international fellowship programs including the Schwarzman Scholars to China created by Stephen A.

Schwarzman in 2013.

Gandhi Peace Prize The International Gandhi Peace Prize,

Named after Mahatma Gandhi,

Is awarded annually by the Government of India.

It is launched as a tribute to the ideals espoused by Gandhi in 1995 on the occasion of the 125th anniversary of his birth.

This is an annual award given to individuals and institutions for their contributions toward social,

Economic,

And political transformation through non-violence and other Gandhian methods.

The award carries 10 million in cash,

Convertible in any currency in the world,

A plaque,

And a citation.

It is open to all persons regardless of nationality,

Race,

Creed,

Or sex.

Student Peace Prize The Student Peace Prize is awarded biennially to a student or a student organization that has made a significant contribution to promoting peace and human rights.

Culture of Peace News Network The Culture of Peace News Network,

Otherwise known simply as CPNN,

Is a UN-authorized interactive online news network committed to supporting the global movement for a culture of peace.

The Sydney Peace Prize Every year in the first week of November,

The Sydney Peace Foundation presents the Sydney Peace Prize.

The Sydney Peace Prize is awarded to an organization or an individual whose life and work has demonstrated significant contributions to the achievement of peace with justice locally,

Nationally,

Or internationally,

The promotion and attainment of human rights,

The philosophy,

Language,

And practice of non-violence.

Other A Peace Museum is a museum that documents historical peace initiatives.

Sydney Peace Museums also provide advocacy programs for non-violent conflict resolution.

This may include conflicts at the personal,

Regional,

Or international level.

Smaller Institutions Randolph-Born Institute The McGill Middle East Program of Civil Society and Peacebuilding International Festival of Peace Poetry Religious Beliefs Religious beliefs often seek to identify and address the basic problems of human life,

Including the conflicts between,

Among,

And within persons and societies.

In ancient Greek-speaking areas,

The virtue of peace was personified as the goddess Irene,

And in Latin-speaking areas as the goddess Pax.

Her image was typically represented by ancient sculptures as that of a full-grown woman,

Usually with a horn of plenty and scepter and sometimes with a torch or olive leaves.

Christianity Christians,

Who believe Jesus of Nazareth to be the Jewish Messiah called Christ,

Meaning anointed one,

Interpret Isaiah 9.

6 as a messianic prophecy of Jesus in which he is called the Prince of Peace.

In the Gospel of Luke,

Zechariah celebrates his son John,

And you,

Child,

Will be called prophet of the Most High.

For you will go before the Lord,

Prepare his ways,

To give his people knowledge of salvation through the forgiveness of their sins,

Because of the tender mercy of our God,

By which the daybreak from on high will visit us to shine on those who sit in darkness and death's shadow,

To guide our feet in the path of peace.

Numerous pontifical documents on the Holy Rosary document a continuity of views of the Popes to have confidence in the Holy Rosary as a means to foster peace.

Subsequently to the Encyclical Mense Mayo,

1965,

In which he urged the practice of the Holy Rosary,

The prayer so dear to the Virgin and so much recommended by the supreme pontiffs.

And as reaffirmed in the Encyclical Christi Matri,

1966,

To implore peace,

Pope Paul VI stated in the Apostolic Recurrence,

Mensis,

October 1969,

That the Rosary is a prayer that favors the great gift of peace.

Islam Islam derived from the root word salam,

Which literally means peace.

Muslims are called followers of Islam.

One clearly stated,

Those who have believed and whose hearts are assured by the remembrance of Allah.

Unquestionably by the remembrance of Allah,

Hearts are assured.

And stated,

O you who have believed,

When you are told,

Space yourselves in assemblies,

Then make space,

Allah will make space for you,

And when you are told,

Arise,

Then arise,

Allah will raise those who have believed among you,

And those who were given knowledge by degrees,

And Allah is acquainted with what you do.

Buddhism Buddhists believe that peace can be attained once all suffering ends.

They regard all suffering as stemming from cravings in the extreme greed,

Aversions,

Fears,

Or delusions.

To eliminate such suffering and achieve personal peace,

Followers in the path of the Buddha adhere to a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths,

A central tenet in Buddhist philosophy.

Hinduism Hindu texts contain the following passages.

May there be peace in the heavens,

Peace in the atmosphere,

Peace in the earth.

Let there be coolness in the water,

Healing in the herbs,

And peace radiating from the trees.

Let there be harmony in the planets and in the stars,

And perfection in eternal knowledge.

May everything in the universe be of peace.

Let peace pervade everywhere at all times.

May I experience that peace within my own heart.

Let us not concord with our own people and concord with people who are strangers to us.

Celestial twins create between us and the stranger's unity of hearts.

May we unite in our minds,

Unite in our purposes,

And not fight against the heavenly spirit within us.

Let not the battle cry rise amidst many slain,

Nor the arrows of war,

God fall with the break of day.

A superior being does not render evil for evil.

This is a maxim one should observe.

One should never harm the wicked or the good or even animals meriting death.

A noble soul will exercise compassion,

Even towards those who enjoy injuring others or cruel deeds,

Who is without fault.

The chariot that leads to victory is of another kind.

Valour and fortitude are its wheels.

Truthfulness and virtuous conduct are its banner.

Strength,

Discretion,

Self-restraint,

And benevolence are its four horses.

Harnessed with the cords of forgiveness,

Compassion,

And equanimity,

Whoever has this righteous chariot has no enemy to conquer anywhere.

Movements and Activism Pacifism Pacifism is the categorical opposition to the behaviours of war or violence as a means of settling disputes or of gaining advantage.

Pacifism covers a spectrum of views ranging from the belief that international disputes can and should all be resolved via peaceful behaviours,

To calls for the abolition of various organisations which tend to institutionalise aggressive behaviours such as the military or arms manufacturers,

To opposition to any organisation of society that might rely in any way upon governmental force.

Such groups which sometimes oppose the governmental use of force include anarchists and libertarians.

Public pacifism opposes violent behaviour under all circumstances,

Including defence of self and others.

Pacifism may be based on moral principles,

A deontological view,

Or pragmatism,

A consequentialist view.

Principled pacifism holds that all forms of violent behaviour are inappropriate responses to conflict and are morally wrong.

Public pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found.

Inner Peace,

Meditation,

And Prayerfulness Psychological or inner peace,

I.

E.

Peace of mind,

Refers to a state of being internally or spiritually at peace,

With sufficient knowledge and understanding to keep oneself calm in the face of apparent discord or distress.

Being internally at peace is considered by many to be a healthy mental state or homeostasis,

And to be the opposite of feeling stressful,

Mentally anxious,

Or emotionally unstable.

Within the meditative traditions,

The psychological or inward achievement of peace of mind is often associated with bliss and happiness.

Peace of mind,

Serenity,

And calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress.

In some meditative traditions,

Inner peace is believed to be a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various types of meditation,

Prayer,

Tai chi juan,

Yoga,

Or other various types of mental or physical disciplines.

Many such practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself.

An emphasis on finding one's inner peace is often associated with traditions such as Buddhism,

Hinduism,

And some traditional Christian contemplative practices such as monastism,

As well as the New Age movement.

Satyagraha Satyagraha is a philosophy and practice of nonviolent resistance developed by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.

He developed Satyagraha techniques and campaigns for Indian independence,

And also during his earlier struggles in South Africa.

The word Satyagraha itself was coined through a public contest that Gandhi sponsored through the newspaper he published in South Africa,

Indian Opinion,

When he realized that neither the common contemporary Hindu language nor the English language contained a word which fully expressed his own meanings and intentions when he talked about the nonviolent approaches to conflict.

According to Gandhi's autobiography,

The contest winner was Maganlal Gandhi,

Presumably no relation,

Who submitted the entry Satyagraha,

Which Gandhi then modified to Satyagraha.

Etymologically,

This Hindu word means truth firmness and is commonly translated as steadfastness in the truth,

Or truth force.

Satyagraha theory also influenced Martin Luther King Jr.

During the campaigns he led during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States.

The theory of Satyagraha sees means and ends as inseparable.

Therefore,

It is contradictory to try to use violence to obtain peace.

As Gandhi wrote,

They say means are,

After all,

Means.

I would say means are,

After all,

Everything,

As the means sow the end.

Contemporary quote sometimes attributed to Gandhi,

But also to A.

J.

Musta,

Sums it up.

There is no way to peace.

Peace is the way.

Theories Many different theories of peace exist in the world of peace studies,

Which involves the study of de-escalation,

Conflict transformation,

Disarmament,

And cessation of violence.

The definition of peace can vary with religion,

Culture,

Or subject of study.

Balance of power theories The classical realist position is that the key to promoting order between states and so of increasing the chances of peace is the maintenance of a balance of power between states,

A situation where no state is so dominant that it can lay down the law to the rest.

Exponents of this view have included Metternich,

Bismarck,

Hans Morgenthau,

And Henry Kissinger.

A related approach,

More in the tradition of Hugo Grotius than Thomas Hobbes,

Was articulated by the so-called English School of International Relations theory,

Such as Martin Wright in his book Power Politics and Headley Bull in the Anarchical Society.

As the maintenance of a balance of power could in some circumstances require a willingness to go to war,

Some critics saw the idea of a balance of power as promoting war rather than promoting peace.

This was a radical critique of those supporters of the allied and associated powers who took justified entry into World War I on the grounds that it was necessary to preserve the balance of power in Europe from a German bid for hegemony.

In the second half of the 20th century and especially during the Cold War,

A particular form of balance of power,

Mutual and nuclear deterrence,

Emerged as a widely held doctrine on the key to peace between the great powers.

Critics argued that the development of nuclear stockpiles increased the chances of war rather than peace,

And that the nuclear umbrella made it safe for smaller wars,

E.

G.

The Vietnam War and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia,

To end the Prague Spring,

So making such wars more likely.

Free Trade,

Interdependence,

And Globalization It was a central tenet of the classical liberalism,

For example among English liberal thinkers of the late 19th and early 20th century,

That free trade promoted peace.

For example,

The Cambridge economist John Maynard Keynes,

1883-1946,

Said that he was brought up on this idea and held it unquestioned until at least the 1920s.

During economic globalization in the decades leading up to World War I,

Writers such as Norman Engel argued that the growth of economic interdependence between the great powers made war between them futile,

And therefore unlikely.

He made this argument in 1913.

A year later,

Europe's economic interconnected states were embroiled in what would later become known as the First World War.

These ideas have again come to prominence among liberal internationalists during the globalization of the late 20th and early 21st century.

These ideas have seen capitalism as consistent with,

Even conducive to,

Peace.

Game Theory The peace and war game is an approach in game theory to understand the relationship between peace and conflicts.

The iterated game hypothesis was originally used by academic groups and computer simulations to study possible strategies of cooperation and aggression.

As peacemakers became richer over time,

It became clear that making war had greater costs than initially anticipated.

One of the well-studied strategies that acquired wealth more rapidly was based on Genghis Khan,

I.

E.

A constant aggressor making war continually to gain resources.

This led in contrast to the development of what's known as the provokable nice-guy strategy,

A peacemaker until attacked,

And proved upon merely to win by occasional forgiveness even when attacked.

By adding the results of all pairwise games for each player,

One sees that multiple players gain wealth,

Cooperating with each other while bleeding a constantly aggressive player.

Socialism and Managed Capitalism Socialists,

Communists,

And left-wing liberal writers of the 19th and 20th centuries,

E.

G.

Lenin,

J.

A.

Hobson,

John Strachey,

Argued that capitalism caused war,

E.

G.

Through promoting imperial or other economic rivalries,

That lead to international conflict.

This led some to argue that international socialism was the key to peace.

However,

In response to such writers in the 1930s who argued that capitalism caused war,

The economist John Maynard Keynes,

1883-1946,

Argued that managed capitalism could promote peace.

This involved international coordination of fiscal monetary policies,

An international monetary system that did not pit the interests of countries against each other,

And a high degree of freedom of trade.

These ideas underlay Keynes' work during World War II that led to the creation of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank at Bretton Woods in 1944,

And later of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade,

Subsequently the World Trade Organization.

Theory of Active Peace Borrowing from the teachings of Norwegian theorist Johan Galtung,

One of the pioneers of the field of peace research on positive peace,

And on the writings of Mayn Quaker Gray Cox,

A consortium of theorists,

Activists,

And practitioners in the experimental John Wollum College Initiative,

Had arrived at a theory of active peace.

This theory posits in part that peace is part of a triad,

Which also includes justice and wholeness or well-being,

An interpretation consonant with scriptural scholarly interpretations of the meaning of the early Hebrew word shalom.

Furthermore,

The consortium have integrated Galtung's teaching of the meaning of the terms peacemaking,

Peacekeeping,

And peacebuilding to also fit into a triadic and interdependent formulation or structure.

Vermont Quaker John V.

Wilmerding posits five stages of growth applicable to individuals,

Communities,

And societies,

Whereby one transcends first the surface awareness that most people have of these kinds of issues,

Emerging successfully into acquiescence,

Pacifism,

Passive resistance,

Active resistance,

And finally into active peace,

Dedicating themselves to peacemaking,

Peacekeeping,

And peacebuilding.

International Organization and Law One of the most influential theories of peace,

Especially since Woodrow Wilson,

Led the creation of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919,

Is that peace will be advanced if the international anarchy of states is replaced through the growth of international law,

Promoted and enforced through international organizations such as the League of Nations,

The United Nations,

And other functional international organizations.

One of the most important early exponents of this view was Sir Alfred Zimmern,

For example in his 1936 book,

The League of Nations and the Rule of Law.

Transnational Solidarity Many idealist thinkers about international relations,

E.

G.

In the traditions of Kant and Karl Marx,

Have argued that the key to peace is the growth of some form of solidarity between peoples or classes of people,

Spanning the lines of cleavage between nations or states that lead to war.

One version of this is the idea of promoting international understanding between nations through the international mobility of students,

An idea most powerfully advanced by Cecil Rhodes in the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships and his successor such as John William Fulbright.

Another theory is that peace can be developed among countries on the basis of active management of water resources.

Lyodard Postmodernism Following Wolfgang Dietrich,

Wolfgang Stutzel,

In the Innsbruck School of Peace Studies,

Some peace thinkers have abandoned any single and all-encompassing definition of peace.

Rather,

They promote the idea of many pieces.

They argue that since no singular correct definition of peace can exist,

Peace should be perceived as a plurality.

They argue that since no singular correct definition of peace can exist,

Peace should be perceived as a plurality.

This postmodern understanding of pieces was based on the philosophy of Jean-François Lyodard.

Studies,

Rankings,

And Periods Peace and Conflict Studies Peace and conflict studies is an academic field which identifies and analyzes violent and nonviolent behaviors,

As well as the structural mechanisms attending violent and nonviolent social conflicts.

This is to better understand the processes leading to a more desirable human condition.

One variation,

Peace studies,

Is an interdisciplinary effort aiming at the prevention,

De-escalation,

And solution of conflicts.

This contrasts with war studies,

Polemology,

Directed at the efficient attainment of victory and conflicts.

Institutions involved may include political science,

Geography,

Economics,

Psychology,

Sociology,

International relations,

History,

Anthropology,

Religious studies,

And gender studies,

As well as a variety of other disciplines.

Measurement and Ranking Although peace is widely perceived as something intangible,

Various organizations have been making efforts to quantify and measure it.

The Global Peace Index,

Produced by the Institute for Economics and Peace,

Is a known effort to evaluate peacefulness in countries based on 23 indicators of the absence of violence and absence of the fear of violence.

The last edition of the index ranks 163 countries on their internal and external levels of peace.

According to the 2017 Global Peace Index,

Iceland is the most peaceful country in the world,

While Syria is the least peaceful one.

Fragile States Index,

Formerly known as the Failed States Index,

Created by the Fund for Peace focuses on risk for instability or violence in 178 nations.

This index measures how fragile a state is by 12 indicators and sub-indicators that evaluate aspects of politics,

Social economy,

And military facets in countries.

The 2015 Failed State Index reports that the most fragile nation is South Sudan,

And the least fragile one is Finland.

University of Maryland publishes the Peace and Conflict Instability Ledger in order to measure peace.

It grades 163 countries with five indicators,

And pays the most attention to risk of political instability or armed conflict over a three-year period.

The most recent ledger shows that the most peaceful country is Slovenia.

On the contrary,

Afghanistan is the most conflicted nation.

Besides indicated above reports from the Institute for Economics and Peace,

Fund for Peace,

And University of Maryland,

Other organizations,

Including George Mason University,

Release indexes that rank countries in terms of peacefulness.

Long Periods The longest continuing period of peace and neutrality among currently existing states is observed in Sweden since 1814,

And in Switzerland,

Which has had an official policy of neutrality since 1815.

This was made possible partly by the periods of relative peace in Europe and the world known as Pax Britannica,

Pax Europia,

Pax Americana,

And Pax Atomica.

Reviews

So this is one I found I hadn’t listened to yet and it was the middle of the night. I listened to every last minute of it. Not boring enough evidently. But I did feel at peace ☮️

Learning, learning, learning, and then sleeping-- it's all good! Thank you!

Like others I found this one interesting! Tho you made it as boring as possible🤣 I was relaxed by the end and was able to fall asleep a little later. Thanks so much ☺️

Peace and Love.

Thanks!

Great to fall asleep to

A bit too interesting to fall asleep :)

Love Benjamin’s readings.

Another great night of sleep 😴 thank you 🙏

I love these talks. Another great one for helping me relax before sleep!

Very interesting and relaxing 😌

This was too interesting - and important - to fall asleep to. Please try harder to be boring!

I love all of these podcasts, they really help me fall asleep