Tonight we are exploring the millennia-long development of a beloved beverage,
Wine.
Our journey will take us all the way back to the humble beginnings of the drink,
13,
000 years ago.
So,
Make yourselves comfortable.
Take a deep breath and exhale slowly,
Relaxing your body as you ease into the story.
In a crisp breeze,
Gently rustling delicate bunches of grapes on their vines,
Feel the warmth of the sun on your skin as it coaxes the fruit to the perfect sweet ripeness.
This is A Brief History of Wine by Gracia Hortem.
The history of wine is interwoven with the progression of human civilization.
As nomadic hunter-gatherers began cultivating agriculture,
The relationship between who we are and what we consume changed.
Early domestication of grapes occurred in their native Eastern Europe,
Levant and Western Asia.
The development of pottery aided the human quest for fermentation,
Which occurred around 11,
000 BC.
The oldest available evidence of winemaking at archaeological sites in China date back to 11,
000 BC.
Shards of pottery uncovered in Jihao,
Located in the Yellow River basin of China,
Bear traces of fermented grapes.
This ancient brew contained not only the familiar grape,
But also rice and honey.
This area also contained wine from a later date which was preserved in liquid form in bronze jars and was found to be infused with herbs and flowers.
Though we have this evidence of early winemaking,
It is not until around 4000 BC that consistent wine production seems to flourish.
In what is now Armenia,
Evidence has been uncovered of the most ancient known winery.
In a sparse,
Rocky mountain cave,
Archaeologists have located ancient wine presses in which grapes fermented,
Jars and cups,
As well as the oldest known example of a shoe.
The wine tradition in Armenia has persisted to this day,
With traditional methods passed on through generations of local winemakers.
While Armenia is not the place most people think of associating with wine,
Almost all of the world's domesticated grapes trace their origins back to Armenia.
After millennia of relative obscurity,
Since the 1900s,
Armenian sherry has become even more prominent and refined.
But we haven't got there yet.
In the early days,
Much of the actual production occurred in small batches,
Often by individual families or villages.
By the time 4000 BC comes around,
The area encompassing modern Israel,
Georgia and Iran contained a sophisticated wine culture.
Excavations have revealed buried pottery called kaveri,
Clay vessels for wine fermentation,
And storage which can be larger than a grown adult.
These special containers would have been crafted with care as the mineral compositions of the clay would influence the flavour of the wine.
Winemakers in Georgia utilise kaveri to this day to produce wine which is tannin-rich and stable without added preservatives.
The shape of these vessels is that of a rough teardrop shape with a tapered bottom.
They would have been buried up to their narrow neck while fermentation took place within.
From the eastern hotspot of grape domestication which lit the spark of viticulture,
A taste for the beverage spread to both the east and west.
It was valuable for a multitude of reasons.
The sugars which ferment into alcohol imbue the drink with disinfecting and preservative properties useful for medicinal and culinary purposes.
The effects of the alcohol itself on humans has led to wine being a near constant component of religious worship for millennia.
Even the existence of the unbroken wine culture attests to its importance in human society.
Egyptian tombs dating back to 3000 BC contain a plethora of ancient wine.
Most of these were the classical red Egyptian stuff but wine trade was also implied by the presence of other not locally produced wines.
The pharaohs and viziers who erected monuments both massive and delicate ensured that they would be well supplied with their preferred E-Rep,
Which means wine in old Egyptian,
Through their journey to the afterlife.
Tutankhamun's tomb contained more than 25 massive jars of the fermented grape juice.
They were deemed important enough for their province and vintage to be inscribed onto the clay vessels themselves.
It was more than a relaxing beverage however and would have been used predominantly in religious festivals and feasts.
Most old Egyptian wines were red and full bodied and were a major component of the drink called shede.
Shede came to play a role in offerings to appeal to the gods and was considered to replenish the soul's energy.
Egyptians contributed to the global wine industry through technological advance in wine storage and transportation.
In Egypt the production of Greek amphorae was streamlined and they were sealed with a mixture of reeds and clay.
Opera usage spread to the Mediterranean and Assyria through trade and cultural exchange.
After 4000 BC until 1500 BC the cultivation of wine was disseminated and worked into basic social rituals.
Dieties were dedicated to wine,
Vineyards,
Winemaking and intoxication.
Most early wines were red,
Strongly alcoholic,
Often flavoured with herbs,
Spices and honey.
Water would have been used to dilute these potent brews in order to make a more enjoyable beverage.
As winemakers experimented with their craft,
Lighter,
Sweeter wines became popular as well.
An ancient hub of the wine industry was the early Greek Minoan society which was a highly organised culture of seafaring traders.
The linear bee tablets found in Pylos,
Written in Mycenaean Greek,
Included lists of regional wine manufacture and vine health.
This kind of record keeping attested to the significance of wine as a commodity.
Its prominence in Minoan times was such that the trappings took on ceremonial significance.
Reiten,
Or horn-shaped drinking vessels,
Were often richly designed and heavily decorated.
Lifelike animal visages of horses and bulls often shaped the bottom end,
With painted designs or engravings adorning the rest.
For ritual purposes a hole would be left in the bottom so that libations poured into the reiten would flow through onto a fire or altar.
No history of wine would be complete without the story of Dionysus,
The Greek god of wine.
Perhaps alluding to the centrality of the beverage to society,
The deity also represented the theatre,
Fertility and agriculture.
Moreover,
The god is one of the earliest in Greek record who has existed in various forms long before that.
The strange story of Dionysus's birth suits his unpredictable nature.
Semele,
A mortal,
Was his mother and Zeus was his father.
To court mortal women,
Zeus would come to them in disguise because no human could survive looking at the true form of a god.
Despite this,
Semele asked Zeus to show himself to her while she was pregnant with Dionysus and was destroyed by his lightning.
Allegedly,
After Semele was killed,
Zeus sewed baby Dionysus onto his own thigh to complete the gestation.
When the new god was born,
He was associated with religious ecstasy and wildness.
Panthers,
Snakes,
Honey and nudity were symbols connected to Dionysus.
Maynard's,
Or raving women,
Known for dancing in forests were his women followers who represent a large element of the wine cult.
Male forest spirits called satyrs were connected to the gods for their exuberance and wildness.
All of this wine mythology indicates the myriad of attributes humans sought by drinking wine.
Closeness to nature,
Joy,
Creative pursuits and spiritual awareness.
Greece went on to become one of the first large-scale producers of the precious liquid in Europe and bolstered its westward migration.
Though the Greek empire fell,
Wine persisted.
While differing from Greece in terms of philosophy and culture,
Rome had as much of a voracious appetite for the wine as its predecessor.
The drink was considered as an everyday necessity.
In addition to ceremonies,
Drinking parties became a common use for wine which were believed to foster togetherness and intellectual pursuits.
By the end of the first millennium BC,
The wine ration for soldiers was up to three litres a day.
Because consumption was so significant to public life,
The industry developed to the point where many authors wrote about production techniques and even specific wines.
In 77 AD,
Pliny the Elder penned the famous phrase,
In vino veritas,
Latin for in wine there is truth.
The dreamy relaxation and warm vigour provided by the drink were considered to be a natural human state.
For most of the first 1,
500 years AD,
Winemaking remained largely based in tradition.
The same clay,
Wood and animal materials were used to store,
Ferment and transport the alcohol.
Ancestral methods survived through generations of vintners.
The majority of developments in the industry were in the breeding of vines to differentiate varietals which led to local types solidifying into distinct products.
One of the most beloved aspects of viticulture is the deep connection between the product and origin.
Terroir,
The environmental factors which influence the vine's growth,
Shape the development of the flavour and sugars in the grape itself.
For this reason,
The same vines planted in two different parts of the world can taste totally different.
Constant innovation has characterised the wine industry from the beginning.
Regional specialisation created the multitude of varietals we know today.
While there are hundreds of highly specific designations based on location,
Fermentation process and ageing,
A handful of categories encompass most of the wines in the world.
The two primary categories are red and white,
Named for the colour of the drink,
Not the fruit.
Grapes themselves come in an array of colours from white to green to red to black.
Also,
The colour of the wine depends on how much of the grape skin is left in the juice and for how long.
Red wines have had much more interaction with grape skins and pressed juice,
While white wines have had very minimal contact.
Major types of white wine are Riesling,
Savignon Blanc,
Pinot Gris and Chardonnay.
Cabernet Savignon,
Syrah,
Merlot,
Malbec,
Pinot Noir and Zinfandel categorise most of the red wine in the world.
Riesling is primarily produced from the white grapes of the Rhine in Germany.
Cool temperatures keep this variety light with a pleasant acidity.
Brightness comes through alongside floral,
Almost perfume-like notes.
Younger Riesling possess scents of peach,
Rose and honey.
Grey blue grapes grown in Burgundy,
France,
Have been used to make Pinot Gris since 1300AD.
Both acidic and sweet,
The grapes used for this blend have a high sugar content.
As such,
The finished product can be highly alcoholic and rich.
It was so desired that Emperor Charles IV of the Holy Roman Empire had monks import this wine all the way to Hungary.
Now grown in Italy,
Known as Pinot Grigio,
This wine is much more dry in modern times.
Savignon Blanc,
A clear,
Refreshing French wine,
Originated in Bordeaux.
The capacity of these green grapes to produce both dry and dessert beverages has increased their popularity worldwide.
Now California,
Chile and New Zealand are known for Savignon Blanc,
Which is generally intensely flavoured.
If aged in oak barrels,
Notes of vanilla join the natural herby,
Grassy character.
Vintners can increase the intensity of flavour in the wine by leaving the grape skins with the must or unfermented juice for longer than usual.
As a result,
Savignon Blanc tends to have a potent brightness.
Chardonnay is a white wine which is grown worldwide due to the adaptability of the vine itself.
This green grape is naturally mild but readily takes on the character of the terroir.
Soil,
Climate and ecosystem all play a vital role alongside the ageing process.
Warmer temperatures found in California and New Zealand highlight rich tropical flavours such as mango and banana.
In cool climates,
Soft fruit like pear and stone fruit come through.
Either way,
The sweetness of Chardonnay make it popular for use in sparkling wines.
Red varieties offer a much different flavour profile,
Tending to less sweetness and acidity in favour of richness.
One of the most popular reds is Cabernet Savignon,
Which is the most frequently planted grape varietal.
Valued for an almost savoury quality reminiscent of herbs and vegetables,
This drink is often said to taste of peppers.
Though much beloved,
Cabernet Savignon can be difficult to grow with poor crop yields.
Rather than abandon this lovely grape,
Winemakers have sought to increase their planting area to preserve it.
Syrah,
Also known as Shiraz,
Grows in Australia,
The Rome Valley of Germany and California.
Usually bold and jammy,
The intense flavour in this red suggests dark fruit like blackberries.
The higher acidity produced by cooler climates lends the wine shades of raspberry,
While the taste of dried currants comes forward with warmth.
Syrah is generally vibrant,
With complex layers of flavour.
A popular smooth red called Merlot falls on the sweeter side of things.
Fewer tannins compared to sugar in the beverage mean that Merlot feels less astringent or dry.
For that reason,
Merlot often appeals to newer wine drinkers who enjoy the notes of plum and strawberry.
Coastal mountainous regions in Italy,
California,
Chile and Romania provide suitable growing conditions for this popular drink.
Bordeaux,
France thrives at the heart of the southern French viticulture and has produced grapes since the 700s.
It is in this region Malbec first took root.
Tannin levels are high in this variety,
Which makes it one of the healthier options.
Polyphenols,
Resveratrol and procyanidins help reduce cholesterol levels in humans,
Aiding in cardiovascular wellness.
Not only are there health benefits to indulging Malbec,
It has a diverse flavour profile from spicy to fruity.
One of the most popular reds is Pinot Noir,
Which like other renowned wines,
Traces back to Burgundy.
Known for growing difficulties and a capricious nature,
Pinot Noir,
Often known as Red Burgundy,
Is nonetheless enjoyed worldwide.
Overall,
This wine balances a silky finish with earthy notes.
The scent of the forest marries to the bustling juiciness of fresh berries.
Zinfandel grapes produce a beverage that is unique in both character and origin.
Croatia boasts the honour of first cultivating this variety.
The grapes themselves are dark,
Almost black in colour and have an especially high sugar content.
They thrive in warm weather and possess a high alcohol content of up to 16% as a result of the natural sweetness.
After hundreds of years in its homeland,
Zinfandel was brought to America in the 1800s through continental Europe and took root in California.
It quickly became popular for almost incense-like smoky notes which harmonise with the aroma of ripe berries.
With so many distinct regions perfecting their craft,
The demand for wine trade increased.
In the 16th century,
Global markets made innovation necessary.
One major issue was spoilage.
Even though wine has sugar and alcohol,
The water content and presence of oxygen can turn the drink into vinegar.
To preserve the beverage over long distances,
Additional alcohol was added in a process called fortification.
Winemakers would distill some of their fermented product which reduces the water and increases the alcohol content.
This spirit of alcohol,
Called brandy,
Was added to regular strength wine,
Resulting in a much less perishable liquid.
The intent was to add water to the fortified wine,
Leaving the drinker with a close to regular strength libation.
Distillation was an ambiguous process,
However,
And many winemakers had quality control by means of combustion.
Gunpowder was sprinkled into a small quantity of the brandy which was then set ablaze.
If the mixture exploded after the alcohol burned off,
It was ready.
The next major innovation to shape the landscape of viticulture was the improvement of glass bottles.
Though first used in Asia in the 1st century BC and widespread by Roman times,
Glass bottles were irregular,
Either too delicate,
Breaking easily,
Or too heavy and impractical to transport.
Early glass vessels were sealed with clay,
Wax and oil,
But were often unreliable.
The abundance of cork in Portugal led to a revelation in the form of the wine cork.
Cork was available to the Romans,
But they were more likely to stuff the openings of bottles with oil-soaked rags to block out the air.
In the 1500s,
As the use of cork became widespread,
Because it can be compressed into an opening and will expand to form an airtight seal.
By the mid-1600s,
Developments were taking place in wine culture as well.
In Bordeaux,
France,
Cabernet Sauvignon distinguished itself in the 1650s.
Now that a wine has a worldwide scope,
The nuances of different origins and types become even more significant.
In 1737,
The world's first established wine-producing region was demarcated in Tokaj,
Hungary,
Which by then had been producing wine for over a thousand years.
With an increased emphasis on variety and consistent production,
The preservation of individual characteristics grew even more vital.
Around 1740,
The glass bottle closely resembled the ones we use today.
An important feature was the ability of these bottles to be stored sideways,
Which keeps the cork moist,
Allowing the wine to further mature in the bottle.
As we move to the past several centuries,
We see a preference for lighter and sweeter wines emerge.
Technological and theoretical advancement has resulted in winemakers' ability to closely monitor the development of their beverages.
In the 1800s,
Sparkling wine,
A type with high levels of carbon dioxide resulting in bubbles and fizz,
Were perfected in regions including Champagne,
France.
Sparkling wine from Champagne grew so cherished that laws were passed that prevented grapes grown anywhere else from bearing the name.
Everything was sunny in the world of wine until the early 1900s.
Increased globalization means that more types of wine were available than ever before,
And winemaking took advantage of that to trade cuttings of their vines to develop new varieties.
This might have played a role in the Phylloxera epidemic that decimated Europe's grape population.
Phylloxera are a small insect that consumes the leaves of grapevines,
Withering the plants away to nothing,
Native to the Americas.
Seventy percent of the vineyards in France and two-thirds of the ones in the rest of Europe were destroyed.
This catastrophe was mitigated by the import of cuttings from America,
Which has natural defenses and were grafted onto existing vines.
The resultant hybrids would retain some of their historical character while surviving the epidemic.
Another attack on viticulture came in the 1920s,
As America enacted a prohibition on alcohol.
Despite strict abstinence laws,
Only commercial wine production was deterred.
Fermentation on the small scale persisted throughout the decade as Americans turned to homemade spirits.
Many vineyards took to selling unprocessed grapes so that individuals had the means to continue brewing.
Since the end of the prohibition in 1933,
Regions in America have made a name in the wine world,
Especially California.
In modern time,
Wine is consumed more than ever,
Still steeped in tradition but ever-changing.
France and Italy remain the world's most prolific centers of wine production,
With upwards of 14 million bottles produced annually.
The United States and China drink the most wine by volume,
But the Vatican City drinks the highest proportion per capita.
Cabernet Sauvignon takes the title of the most planted wine grape worldwide.
Next time you find yourself enjoying a glass of wine,
Raise your glass to the millennia-long journey that brought the drink to your lips.
Imagine the rich soil from which vines rise tall,
The breeze that rustles through ripe bunches of grapes as they reach the perfect maturity for harvest.
As you inhale the nuanced aroma,
Dream of lush forests,
Fragrant herbs,
And sweet fruit.
Allow the complexity of smoky and savory notes to fill your senses as you sink into the richness of this long-lived beverage.
Let yourself relax and embrace the warm glow.
