Welcome to the I Can't Sleep Podcast,
Where I help you drift off one fact at a time.
I'm your host Benjamin Boster,
And today's episode is about the Roman Empire.
Thank you to Josh for sponsoring today's episode.
He wants to say,
Happy anniversary,
Alyssa.
I'm looking forward to many,
Many more.
The Roman Empire was a state that dominated the Mediterranean and much of Europe,
Western Asia,
And North Africa during the Classical period.
The Roman Republic had previously conquered most of these territories,
Which later came under permanent single-person rule following Octavian's rise to power and the establishment of the Augustan Principate in 27 BC.
By the late 3rd century AD,
The empire had been divided many times.
The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 AD,
Whereas the Eastern Roman Empire,
Also known as the Byzantine Empire,
Persisted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453.
By 100 BC the city of Rome had expanded its rule from the Italian peninsula to most of the Mediterranean and beyond.
However,
It was severely destabilized by civil wars and political conflicts,
Which culminated in the victory of Octavian over Mark Antony and Cleopatra.
At the Battle of Actium in 31 BC,
And the subsequent conquest of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt.
In 27 BC,
The Roman Senate granted Octavian overarching military power,
Imperium,
And the new title of Augustus,
Marking his accession as the first Roman emperor.
The vast Roman territories were organized into senatorial provinces,
Governed by proconsuls who were appointed by lot annually,
And imperial provinces which belonged to the emperor,
But were governed by legates.
The first two centuries of the Empire saw unprecedented stability and prosperity,
Known as the Pax Romana,
Literally Roman Peace.
Rome reached its greatest territorial extent under Trajan,
But increasing trouble and decline began under Commodus.
In the 3rd century,
The empire underwent a 50-year crisis that threatened its existence due to civil war,
Plagues,
And barbarian invasions.
The Gallic and Palmyrene empires broke away,
And a series of short-lived emperors led the empire,
Which was later reunified under Aurelian.
The civil wars ended with the victory of Diocletian,
Who set up two different imperial courts in the Greek East and Latin West.
Constantine the Great,
The first Christian emperor,
Moved the imperial seat from Rome to Byzantium in 330 and renamed it Constantinople.
The migration period involving large invasions by Germanic peoples in the Huns led to the decline of the Western Roman Empire.
With the fall of Ravenna to the Germanic Herulians,
And the deposition of Romulus Augustus in 476 by Odoacer,
The Western Empire finally collapsed.
The Byzantine,
Eastern Roman Empire survived for another millennium,
With Constantinople as its sole capital,
Until the city's fall in 1453.
Due to the Empire's extent and endurance,
Its institutions and culture had a lasting influence on the development of language,
Religion,
Art,
Architecture,
Literature,
Philosophy,
Law,
And forms of government across its territories.
The rediscovery of classical science and technology,
Which formed the basis for Islamic science in medieval Europe,
Contributed to the scientific renaissance and scientific revolution.
Rome's republican institutions have influenced the Italian city-state republics of the medieval period,
The early United States,
And modern democratic republics.
Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the Roman Republic in the 6th century BC,
Though not outside the Italian peninsula until the 3rd century BC.
The Republic was not a nation-state in the modern sense,
But a network of self-ruled towns,
With varying degrees of independence from the Senate,
And provinces administered by military commanders.
It was governed by annually elected magistrates,
Roman consuls above all,
In conjunction with the Senate.
The first century BC was a time of political and military upheaval,
Which ultimately led to rule by emperors.
The consul's military power rested in the Roman legal concept of imperium,
Meaning command,
Typically in a military sense.
Occasionally,
Successful consuls or generals were given the honorary title Imperator,
Commander.
This is the origin of the word Emperor,
Since this title was always bestowed to the earlier emperors.
Rome suffered a long series of internal conflicts,
Conspiracies,
And civil wars from the late 2nd century BC,
While greatly extending its power beyond Italy.
Antony and Octavian divided the Roman world between them.
But this did not last long.
In 27 BC the Senate gave him the title Augustus,
Venerated,
And made him Princips,
Foremost,
With proconsular imperium,
Thus beginning the Principate,
The first epoch of Roman imperial history.
Although the Republic stood in name,
Augustus had all meaningful authority.
During his 40-year rule,
A new constitutional order emerged so that upon his death,
Tiberius would succeed him as the new de facto monarch.
The 200 years that began the Augustuses' rule are traditionally regarded as the Pax Romana,
Roman Peace.
The cohesion of the empire was furthered by a degree of social stability and economic prosperity that Rome had never before experienced.
The success of Augustus in establishing principles of dynastic succession was limited by his outliving a number of talented potential heirs.
The Julio-Claudian dynasty lasted for four more emperors,
Tiberius,
Caligula,
Claudius,
And Nero,
Before it yielded in 69 AD to the strife-torn year of the four emperors,
From which Vespasian emerged as the victor.
Vespasian became the founder of the brief Flavian dynasty,
Followed by the Nerva-Antoine dynasty,
Which produced the five good emperors,
Nerva,
Trajan,
Adrian,
Antonius Pius,
And Marcus Aurelius.
Among the so-called Five Good Emperors,
Adrian is particularly noted for consolidating the Empire's frontiers and embarking on ambitious building projects throughout the provinces.
In Judea,
Which had long been the center of Jewish national and religious life,
His reign marked a decisive turning point.
After earlier Jewish resistance to Roman rule,
Adrian visited the region in 129-130 AD and refounded Jerusalem as a Roman colony Aelia Capitolina,
Naming it after his family,
Aelius,
And the Capitoline Triad.
The refoundation overlaid the destroyed Jewish city with a new Roman urban plan,
And included the construction of a temple to Jupiter on the side of the former Jewish temple.
Later,
Tradition and archaeological evidence also indicate a temple of Venus near the site of the Holy Sepulcher.
In 212,
During the reign of Caracalla,
Roman citizenship was granted to all free-born inhabitants of the empire.
Aurelian stabilized the empire militarily,
And Diocletian reorganized and restored much of it in 285.
Diocletian divided the empire into four regions,
Each ruled by a separate Tetrarch.
Order was eventually restored by Constantine the Great,
Who became the first emperor to convert to Christianity,
And who established Constantinople as the new capital of the Eastern Empire.
During the decades of the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties,
The empire was divided along an east-west axis,
With dual power centers in Constantinople and Rome.
Theodosius I,
The last emperor to rule over both East and West,
Died in 395,
After making Christianity the state religion.
The Roman Empire began to disintegrate in the early 5th century.
Odoacer ended the Western Empire by declaring Zeno sole emperor,
And placing himself as Zeno's nominal subordinate.
In reality,
Italy was ruled by Odoacer alone.
The Eastern Roman Empire,
Called the Byzantine Empire by later historians,
Continued until the reign of Constantine XI's Palaiologos,
The last Roman emperor.
The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history,
With contiguous territories throughout Europe,
North Africa and the Middle East.
The Latin phrase,
Imperium sine fine,
Empire without end,
Expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the empire.
In Virgil's Aeneid,
Limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by Jupiter.
This claim of universal dominion was renewed when the empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century.
In addition to annexing large regions,
The Romans directly altered their geography,
For example,
Cutting down entire forests.
Roman expansion was mostly accomplished under the Republic,
Though parts of northern Europe were conquered in the first century,
When Roman control in Europe,
Africa,
And Asia was strengthened.
Under Augustus,
A global map of the known world was displayed for the first time in public at Rome,
Coinciding with the creation of the most comprehensive political geography that survives from antiquity,
The geography of Strabo.
When Augustus died,
The account of his achievements prominently featured the geographical cataloguing of the empire.
Geography,
Alongside meticulous written records,
Were central concerns of Roman imperial administration.
Latin and Greek were the main languages of the empire,
But the empire was deliberately multilingual.
Andrew Wallace Hadrill says,
The main desire of the Roman government was to make itself understood.
At the start of the empire,
Knowledge of Greek was useful to pass as educated nobility,
And knowledge of Latin was useful for a career in the military,
Government,
Or law.
Bilingual inscriptions indicate the everyday interpenetration of the two languages.
Latin and Greek's mutual linguistic and cultural influence is a complex topic.
Latin words incorporated into Greek were very common by the early imperial era,
Especially for military,
Administration and trade and commerce matters.
Greek grammar,
Literature,
Poetry,
And philosophy shaped Latin language and culture.
The Empire was multicultural,
With astonishing cohesive capacity to create shared identity while encompassing diverse peoples.
Public monuments and communal spaces open to all,
Such as forums,
Amphitheaters,
Racetracks,
And baths,
Helped foster a sense of Roman-ness.
Roman society had multiple overlapping social hierarchies.
The civil war preceding Augustus caused upheaval,
But did not affect an immediate redistribution of wealth and social power.
From the perspective of the lower classes,
A peak was merely added to the social pyramid.
Personal relationships,
Patronage,
Friendship,
Family,
Marriage,
Continue to influence politics.
By the time of Nero,
However,
It was not unusual to find a former slave who was richer than a free-born citizen,
Or an equestrian who exercised greater power than a senator.
The blurring of the Republic's more rigid hierarchies led to increased social mobility,
Both upward and downward,
To a greater extent than all other well-documented ancient societies.
Women,
Freedmen,
And slaves had opportunities to profit and exercise influence in ways previously less available to them.
According to the jurist Gaius,
The essential distinction in the Roman law of persons was that all humans were either free,
Liberi,
Or slaves,
Servi.
The legal status of free persons was further defined by their citizenship.
In 212 the Constitutio Antoniana extended citizenship to all free-born inhabitants of the empire.
Freeborn Roman women were considered citizens but did not vote,
Hold political office,
Or serve in the military.
Women could own property,
Enter contracts,
And engage in business.
Inscriptions throughout the empire honor women as benefactors in funding public works,
An indication they could hold considerable fortunes.
A mother's right to own and dispose of property,
Including setting the terms of her will,
Gave her enormous influence over her sons into adulthood.
The Latin word ordo,
Plural ordinis,
Is translated variously and inexactly into English as class,
Order,
Rank.
Two of the highest ordiners in Rome were the senatorial and equestrian.
The rise of provincial men to the senatorial and equestrian orders is an aspect of social mobility in the early empire.
Roman aristocracy was based on competition,
And unlike later European nobility,
A Roman family could not maintain its position merely through hereditary succession or having title to lands.
Admission to the higher ordiners brought distinction and privileges,
But also responsibilities.
In antiquity,
A city depended on its leading citizens to fund public works,
Events,
And services.
Maintaining one's rank required massive personal expenditures.
As the republican principle of citizens' equality under the law faded,
The symbolic and social privileges of the upper classes led to an informal division of Roman society into those who had acquired greater honors,
Onestiores,
And humbler folk,
Humiliors.
In general,
Honestiores were the members of the three higher orders,
Along with certain military officers.
The three major elements of the imperial state were the central government,
The military,
And the provincial government.
The military established control of a territory through war.
But after a city or people was brought under treaty,
The mission turned to policing,
Protecting Roman citizens,
Agricultural fields,
And religious sites.
The Romans lacked sufficient manpower or resources to rule through force alone.
Cooperation with local elites was necessary to maintain order,
Collect information,
And extract revenue.
The Romans often exploited internal political divisions.
Communities with demonstrated loyalty to Rome retained their own laws,
Could collect their own taxes locally,
And in exceptional cases were exempt from Roman taxation.
Legal privileges and relative independence incentivize compliance.
Roman government was thus limited,
But efficient in its use of available resources.
The imperial cult of ancient Rome identified emperors and some members of their families with divinely sanctioned authorities.
The rite of apotheosis signified the deceased emperor's deification.
The dominance of the Emperor was based on the consolidation of powers from several Republican offices.
The emperor made himself the central religious authority as Pontifex Maximus,
And centralized the right to declare war,
Ratify treaties,
And negotiate with foreign leaders.
While these functions were clearly defined during the Principate,
The Emperor's powers over time became less constitutional and more monarchical,
Culminating in the Dominant.
A bureaucracy formed around him only gradually.
The women of the Emperor's family often intervene directly in his decisions.
The practical source of an emperor's power and authority was the military.
The legionaries were paid by the imperial treasury and swore an annual oath of loyalty to the emperor.
Most emperors chose a successor,
Usually a close family member or adopted heir.
The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgment of his status and authority to stabilize the political landscape.
No emperor could hope to survive without the allegiance of the Praetorian Guard and the Legions.
After the Punic Wars,
The Roman army comprised professional soldiers who volunteered for 20 years of active duty and five as reserves.
The transition to a professional military began during the late Republic,
And was one of the many profound shifts away from republicanism,
Under which an army of conscript citizens defended the homeland against a specific threat.
By Imperial times,
Military service was a full-time career.
The pervasiveness of military garrisons throughout the empire was a major influence in the process of Romanization.
Through his military reforms,
Which included consolidating or disbanding units of questionable loyalty,
Augustus regularized the legion.
The army had about 300,
000 soldiers in the 1st century and under 400,
000 in the 2nd,
Significantly smaller than the collective armed forces of the conquered territories.
Augustus also created the Praetorian Guard,
Nine cohorts,
Ostensibly to maintain the public peace,
Which were garrisoned in Italy.
Roman courts held original jurisdiction over cases involving Roman citizens throughout the empire,
But there were too few judicial functionaries to impose Roman law uniformly in the provinces.
If provincial law conflicted with Roman law or custom,
Roman courts heard appeals,
And the emperor held final decision-making authority.
Roman law facilitated the acquisition of wealth by a pro-Roman elite.
The extension of universal citizenship to all free inhabitants of the Empire in 212 required the uniform application of Roman law,
Replacing local law codes that had applied to non-citizens.
The Empire is best thought of as a network of regional economies,
Based on a form of political capitalism in which the state regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.
Economic growth was greater than that of most other societies prior to industrialization.
Territorial conquests permitted a large-scale reorganization of land use that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization,
Particularly in North Africa.
Some cities were known for particular industries.
The scale of urban building indicates a significant construction industry.
Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of economic rationalism.
And the empire was highly monetized.
Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity,
Transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly,
And trade routes connected regional economies.
The supply contracts for the army drew on local suppliers near the base,
Castrums throughout the province,
And across provincial borders.
Economic historians vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product during the Principate.
In the sample years of 14,
100,
And 150 AD,
Estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 HS.
The GDP per capita of Italy is estimated as 40-66% higher than the rest of the empire,
Due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income.
The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch,
Vault,
And dome.
Some Roman structures still stand today,
Due in part to sophisticated methods of making cements and concrete.
Roman temples develop Etruscan and Greek forms,
With some distinctive elements.
Roman roads are considered the most advanced built until the early 19th century.
Roman bridges were among the first large and lasting bridges,
Built from stone,
And in most cases concrete,
With the arch as the basic structure.
The city was viewed as fostering civilization by being properly designed,
Ordered,
And adorned.
Augustus undertook a vast building program in Rome,
Supported public displays of art that expressed imperial ideology,
And reorganized the city into neighborhoods,
Vici,
Administered at the local level with police and firefighting services.
A focus of Augustan monumental architecture was the Campus Martius,
An open area outside the city center.
The altar of Augustan peace,
Our Apostis Augusti,
Was located there,
As was an obelisk imported from Egypt that formed the pointer gnomon of Horologium.
With its public gardens,
The campus was among the most attractive places in Rome to visit.
City planning and urban lifestyles was influenced by the Greeks early on.
And in the Eastern Empire,
Roman rule shaped the development of cities that already had a strong Hellenistic character.
The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious and attributed their success to their collective piety and good relations with the gods.
The archaic religion believed to have come from the earliest kings of Rome was a foundation of the most maiorum,
The way of the ancestors,
Central to Roman identity.
Roman religion was practical and contractual,
Based on the principle of du-ud-des,
I give that you might give.
Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer,
Ritual and sacrifice,
Not on faith or dogma,
Although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine.
For ordinary Romans,
Religion was a part of daily life.
Each home had a household shrine to offer prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities.
Neighborhood shrines and sacred places,
Such as springs and groves,
Dotted the city.
The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances.
As many as 135 days were devoted to religious festivals and games.
